What Have I Been Reading Lately?

Once again, for those who may be curious about the things I have been reading as of late, the following is a list of articles and books that I have scoured in the past few weeks. Regular visitors might notice that there has been a significant focus on all-things-literacy-related, which is another indication of the impending launch of The Literacy Bug website.

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• Allington, R. L. (2002). What I’ve Learned about Effective Reading Instruction from a Decade of Studying Exemplary Elementary Classroom Teachers. The Phi Delta Kappan, 83(10), 740–747. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20440246
• Allington, R. L. (2006). Fluency: Still waiting after all these years. What research has to say about fluency instruction, 94-105.
• Bear, S., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F. (2014). Words their way: word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction (5th edition). Essex: Pearson.
• Blackwell-Bullock, R., Invernizzi, M., Drake, E. A., & Howell, J. L. (2009). Concept of Word in text: an integral literacy skill. Reading In Virginia, 31, 30–35.
• Brandone, A. C., Salkind, S. J., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2006). Language development. In G. G. Bear & K. M. Minke (Eds.), Children’s needs III: development, prevention, and intervention. (pp. 499–514). Washington D.C.: National Association of School Psychologists. Retrieved from http://udel.edu/~roberta/pdfs/Bear chaptBrandone.pdf
• Christ, T., Wang, X. C., & Chiu, M. M. (2011). Using story dictation to support young children’s vocabulary development: Outcomes and process. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26(1), 30–41.
• Coyne, M. D., Capozzoli-Oldham, A. & Simmons, D. C. (2012). Vocabulary instruction for young children at risk of reading difficulties: teaching word meanings during shared storybook readings. In E. J. Kame’enui & J. F. Baumann, Vocabulary instruction: research to practice (2nd edition). New York: Guilford Press.
• Fisher, D., Frey, N. & Lapp, N. (2011). What the research says about intentional instruction. In S. J. Samuels & A. E. Farstrup (Eds), What research has to say about reading instruction(4th edition). (pp. 359 - 378). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
• Flanigan, K. (2007). A concept of word in text: A pivotal event in early reading acquisition. Journal of Literacy Research, 39(1), 37–70. doi:10.1080/10862960709336757
• Flanigan, K., Hayes, L., Templeton, S., Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., & Johnston, F. (2011). Words their way with struggling readers: word study for reading, vocabulary, and spelling instruction, grades 4 - 12. Boston: Pearsons.
• Goldman, S. R., & Lee, C. D. (2014). Text complexity: state of the art and the conundrums it raises. The Elementary School Journal, 115(2), 290–300. doi:10.1163/_afco_asc_2291
• Hawkins, M. R. (2004). Researching English Language and Literacy Development in Schools. Educational Researcher, 33(3), 14–25. doi:10.3102/0013189X033003014
• Hiebert, E. H., & Pearson, D. P. (2014). Understanding text complexity: introduction to the special issue. The Elementary School Journal, 115(2), 153–160. doi:10.1163/_afco_asc_2291
• Hoffman, J., Sailors, M., Duffy, G., & Beretvas, S. N. (2004). The effective elementary classroom literacy environment: examining the validity of the TEX-IN3 observation system. Journal of Literacy Research, 36(3), 303–334. doi:10.1207/s15548430jlr3603_3
• Hsueh-chao, M. H., & Nation, P. (2000). Unknown vocabulary density and reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language, 13(1), 403–430.
• Justice, L. M. (2006). Evidence-based practice, response to intervention, and the prevention of reading difficulties. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 37(4), 284–297. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2006/033)
• Justice, L. M., Mashburn, A., Hamre, B., & Pianta, R. (2008). Quality of Language and Literacy Instruction in Preschool Classrooms Serving At-Risk Pupils. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23(1), 51–68. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.09.004
• Kame’enui, E. J. & Baumann, J. F. (2012). Vocabulary instruction: research to practice (2nd edition). New York: Guilford Press.
• Kieffer, M. J., & Lesaux, N. K. (2007). Breaking down words to build meaning: morphology, vocabulary, and reading comprehension in the urban classroom. The Reading Teacher, 61(2), 134–144. doi:10.1598/RT.61.2.3
• Kieffer, M. J., & Lesaux, N. K. (2011). Morphing into adolescents: active word learning for English-Language Learners and their classmates in middle school. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(1), 47–56. doi:10.1598/JA
• Kuhl, P. K. (2004). Early language acquisition: cracking the speech code. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 5(11), 831–43. doi:10.1038/nrn1533
• Kuhn, M. R., & Stahl, S. A. (2003). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 3–21. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.1.3
• Leslie, L. & Caldwell, J. S. (2010). Qualitative Reading Inventory (5th edition). Boston: Pearson.
• Martin, M., Fergus, E., & Noguera, P. (2010). Responding to the needs of the whole child: a case study of a high-performing elementary school for immigrant children. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 26(3), 195–222. doi:10.1080/10573561003769582
• McGee, L. M, & Dail, A. R. (2010). Phonemic awareness instruction in preschool: research implications and lessons learned from Early Reading First. In M.C. McKenna, S. Walpole, & K. Conradi (Eds) Promoting early reading: research, resources and best practices. New York: Guilford Press.
• McGinty, A. S. & Justice, L. M. (2010). Language facilitation in the preschool classroom: rationale, goals and strategies. In M.C. McKenna, S. Walpole, & K. Conradi (Eds) Promoting early reading: research, resources and best practices. New York: Guilford Press.
• McIntyre, E., & Hulan, N. (2013). Research-Based, Culturally Responsive Reading Practice in Elementary Classrooms: A Yearlong Study. Literacy Research and Instruction, 52(1), 28–51. doi:10.1080/19388071.2012.737409
• McIntyre, E., Hulan, N., & Layne, V. (2011). Reading Instruction for Diverse Classrooms: Research-Based, Culturally Responsive Practice. New York: Guilford Press.
• McKenna, M. C. & Stahl, K. A (2009). Assessment for reading instruction (2nd edition). New York: Guilford Press.
• McKenna, M. C., Walpole, S., & Conradi, K. (2010). Promoting early reading: research, resources and best practices. New York: Guilford Press.
• National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (2014). Speech and Language Developmental Milestones [NIDCD Health Information]. Bethesda, MD. Retrieved from http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/voice/pages/speechandlanguage.aspx
• National Reading Panel (NRP). (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence- based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
• Olson, C. B. (2010). The Reading/Writing Connection: strategies for teaching and learning in the secondary classroom (3rd Edition). Boston: Pearson.
• RAND Reading Study Group (2002). Reading for understanding: toward an R&D program in reading comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Reading Education.
• Schmitt, N., Jiang, X., & Grabe, W. (2011). The percentage of words known in a text and reading comprehension. The Modern Language Journal, 95(1), 26–43. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2011.01146.x
• Stahl, K. A. D., & Bravo, M. A. (2010). Contemporary classroom vocabulary assessment for content areas. The Reading Teacher, 63(7), 566–578. doi:10.1598/RT.63.7.4
• Stahl, K. A & McKenna, M. C. (2013). Reading assessment in an RTI framework. New York: Guilford Press.
• Taylor, T. J. (2013). Calibrating the child for language: Meredith Williams on a Wittgensteinian approach to language socialization. Language Sciences, 40, 308-320.
• Tyner, B. B. (2009). Small-group reading instruction: a differentiated teaching model for beginning and struggling readers (2nd edition). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
• Tyner, B. B. & Green, S. E. (2012). Small-group reading instruction: differentiated teaching models for intermediate readers, grades 3-8 (2nd edition). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
• Vaughn, M., & Parsons, S. A. (2013). Adaptive Teachers as Innovators: Instructional Adaptions Opening Spaces for Enhanced Literacy Learning. Language Arts, 91(2), 82–93.
• Walpole, S., Justice, L. M., & Invernizzi, M. a. (2004). Closing the Gap Between Research and Practice: Case Study of School-Wide Literacy Reform. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 20(3), 261–283. doi:10.1080/10573560490429078
• Walpole, S. & McKenna, M. C. (2007). Differentiated reading instruction: strategies for the primary grades. New York: Guilford Press.
• Wolfersberger, M., Reutzel, D. R., Sudweeks, R., & Fawson, P. (2004). Developing and validating the Classroom Literacy Environmental Profile (CLEP): a tool for examining the “print richness” of early childhood and elementary classrooms. Journal of Literacy Research, 36(2), 211–272. doi:10.1207/s15548430jlr3602_4
• Zucker, T. A. & Landry, S. H. (2010). Improving the quality of preschool read-alouds: professional development and coaching that targets book-reading practices. In M.C. McKenna, S. Walpole, & K. Conradi (Eds) Promoting early reading: research, resources and best practices. New York: Guilford Press.

Considering Teaching Techniques in Each of the Main Areas of Literacy Instruction

Continuing on from the previous journal entry, the following presents key “activities” that contribute to the development of the core areas of language & literacy development. The activities are mentioned but not defined. An elaboration of the teaching and learning practices will be presented in the future.

ORAL LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT - Language Comprehension - The Beginnings of Literacy

1. Identifying target language

2. Modelling & emphasising the target

3. Interpreting & recasting expressions

4. Extending contributions

5. Utilising pause-prompt-praise

6. Using cues/prompts (visual/tactile/etc)

7. Facilitating barrier activities

8. Employing oral cloze procedures

9. Providing choices and other opportunities to extend language

10. Utilising links to first language for English language learners

11. Overall ... shaping discourse

PHONEMIC AWARENESS - Analysing Known Language - Becoming "Word Aware"

1. Clapping syllables (PA)

2. Multi-sensory phonemic awareness / puppet play (PA)

3. Elkonin boxes / sound sticks (PA)

4. Picture sorting / picture blending / picture segmenting (PA)

5. Onset & rime identification (PA)

6. Phoneme isolation & phoneme blending (PA)

7. Phoneme deletion (PA)

8. Phoneme journals / phoneme walls / picture walls

9. Utilising links to first language for English language learners

PHONICS/SPELLING SEQUENCE - Codifying Language

1. Alphabet books / alphabet walls

2. Multi-sensory handwriting practice

3. Picture sorting / picture blending / picture segmenting (PA)

4. Elkonin boxes / sound sticks / Say-It-And-Move-It (PA)

5. Spelling journals / phoneme walls / rule records

6. Word sorts (closed / open) (timed / untimed)

7. Word scrambles

8. Word ladders

9. Word hunts (identifying sounds in texts)

10. Make a word (morphological analysis)

11. Use the Words You Know

12. High frequency words / sight words

13. Invented spelling / tracking spelling skills

14. Games (e.g. memory, bingo, board games)

15. Utilising links to first language for English language learners

VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT - Having Something to Talk With

1. Incidental learning (see Oral Language Development)

2. Learning from read alouds (see Read Alouds)

3. Personal glossaries / word banks / word walls

4. Word maps / four square maps / power maps

5. Semantic maps (and other brainstorming techniques)

6. Graphic organisers (hanging diagrams, flow charts, Venn diagrams, etc)

7. Clines, timelines and scales

8. Semantic feature analysis

9. Word analysis / morphological analysis

10. Analysis of dictionary definitions and thesaurus entries

11. Games (e.g. memory, bingo, board games)

12. Cloze procedures 

13. Possible sentences / use in context / extended discussions

14. Utilising links to first language for English language learners

READ ALOUDS - Encountering Literacy in Rich, Meaningful Ways

1. (Where possible) Link Read-Alouds that take advantage of prior knowledge and shared experiences 

2. (Where possible) Utilise links to first language for English language learners

3. Read alouds should be a vehicle to (a) address comprehension-related instructions and support vocabulary, (b) target code-related instruction, (c) support oral language and early writing (e.g. path rough story extensions), and (d) be a catalyst to create a supportive book-reading environment. (Zucker & Landry, 2010)

4. (For meaningful reading) Link read aloud questions to the QARS Techniques (Raphael & Au, 2005)

5. (For meaningful reading) Include read aloud questions that prompt readers to summarise, paraphrase, clarify, identify, interpret, predict, and express opinions (Palinesar, 1987)

6. (For picture books) take advantage of vivid, engaging "picture walks" to build a rich platform for shared, guided reading.

7. Focus on bringing the text to life, exploring rich vocabulary (see vocabulary section), engaging in interpretive questioning, and encouraging enthusiastic shared reading.

8. Encourage post-reading comprehension and composition activities, such as summarisng, retelling, analysing, appropriating, representing and/or responding to the text.

9. Encouraging post-reading word and vocabulary studies.

LANGUAGE EXPERIENCES - Encountering Language & Literacy in Rich, Meaningful Ways

1. Facilitating a rich, meaningful experience;

2. Emphasising target language in context (see Oral Language Development)

3. Documenting experience thoroughly and vividly

4. Revisiting the experience in a jointly constructed recount

5. Display / reinforce vocabulary through word walls, class glossaries, and similar / further activities (see Vocabulary Development)

6. Use written recount as a tool for fluency and revision

7. Expand written genres to include relevant formal genres (e.g. procedural texts)

8. Use shared experience as a launch pad to expand knowledge by reading related material

9. Utilising links to first language and cultural practices for English language learners

FLUENCY - The oft-neglected skills that helps learners move toward independence

1. Practice, practice, practice with texts that are 95% to 98% decodable

2. Use visual and other cues/prompts to assist decoding

3. Use a Vocabulary Assessment Scale to assess unknown words in a text

4. Pre-teach relevant vocabulary to assist with decoding words in context

5. Use running records to document common errors

6. Using word hunts as a pre- or post-reading reading activity

7. Utilising links to first language for English language learners

8. Partner reading

9. Choral reading / echo reading / lead reading / whisper reading

10. Readers' Theatre / performance-based reading

11. Fluency practice with think alouds (for comprehension monitoring)

12. Tape-assisted reading / recording reading to tape

13. Always include brief comprehension questions so attention to meaning is maintained.

COMPREHENSION - Deep, Thoughtful Work

1. Remember that "An engaged reader is one who is motivated, knowledgeable, strategic and socially interactive. The engaged reader is viewed as motivated to read for diverse purposes, an active knowledge constructor, an effective user of cognitive strategies and a participant in social interactions.  (Rueda et al., 2001). 

2. Refer to techniques mentioned in the Read Aloud schedule.

3. Utilise links to first language for English language learners.

4. Utilise elements of the Reading-to-Learn Cycle, including Preparing for Reading, Joint Pre-Writing, Individual Pre-Writing, Detailed Reading, Joint Reconstruction, Individual Reconstruction, and Responding to the Teach (Rose & Martin, 2012)

5. Encourage collaborative teaching g techniques, such as Reciprocal Teaching, Jigsaw Teaching, Book Circle, Reading Workshops, Directed Thinking, and Literature Discussion Circles.

6. Foster the range of comprehension skills: Planning & Goal Setting, Tapping into Prior Knowledge, Asking Questions, Making Predictions, Visualising, Making Connections, Forming (initial) Interpretations, Identifying Main Ideas, Identifying Cause and Effect, Organising Information, Adopting a Perspective (Point of View), Reflecting on Cognitive Processing, Revising Perspective, Seeking Evidence to Justify Viewpoint, Analysing Text Closely, Analysing Style, Taking Stock of Knowledge, Relating the Text to Experience, Evaluating Practice and  Forming criticisms (Olson, 2007)

7. Provide specific scaffolding to encourage disciplinary reading and/or concept formation (Goldman, 2012)

COMPOSITION - Diverse, Explorative Work

1. Utilising links to first language for English language learners

2. Emulating the themes of modelling, joint construction, guided construction, independent practice, and reflective practice.

3. Understanding the diversity of purposes (e.g. describing, recounting, narrating, analysing, explaining, etc), and apprenticing learners into competence at the sentence, paragraph, textual and pragmatic levels.

4. Understanding that any act of composition involve (a) building the field/content of the message, (b) deconstruction the mode of communication, (c) deconstructing the situation/context/audience of communication, and (d) cycling through joint construction, guided construction, independent practice, conferencing, publishing and reflecting. (Martin, 1999)

5. Understanding the writing/composing is multifaceted skills that requires time and guidance.

6. Understanding that writing is a social practice that involves goal-orientated action to purposefully participate in an activity system (or community of practice).

7. Using Writing Workshops and Writing Portfolios approaches can provide learners with opportunities to practice in a range of genres.

8. It is also important to see how experience in writing can be a vehicle for deeper reading ... and visa versa.

9. Recognise that a written task is always an ill-structured task, since a written tasks always requires one to interpret and deliberate over content, context, purpose and audience.

10. Overall ... shaping discourse.

REPRESENTING & REMEMBERING KNOWLEDGE - Isn't this what education is for?

1. Remember that “our knowledge forms an enormous system. And only within this system has a particular bit the value we give it.” (Wittgenstein, 1969)

2. Using graphic organisers and progressive brainstorming as tools for representing knowledge.

3. Organise and categorise information through information grids.

4. Make explicit the disciplinary questions that guide inquiry in important semiotic domains.

5. Provide learners with ample opportunities to retrieve and apply important knowledge and concepts (e.g. pause-prompt-praise)

6. Provide “message abundance”. In other words, reinforce knowledge in a range of media and contexts. Learner should be able access knowledge through a rich reservoir of experience.

7. Foster interests and budding expertise, which is particularly important as children transition into adolescence (Alexander, 2005)

8. Deepen knowledge by adding to a learners' expertise and by providing opportunities for learners to render, process, represent, and extend their knowledge in many, diverse ways.

That's it for us today. In the next entry, we will provide recommended readings in each of the above areas. And - in the future - we will provide examples of integrated teaching and learning. Please explore and enjoy!

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References
Alexander, P. A. (2005). The Path to Competence: A Lifespan Developmental Perspective on Reading. Journal of Literacy Research, 37(4), 413–436.

Goldman, S. R. (2012). Adolescent literacy: learning and understanding content. The Future of Children, 22(2), 89–116. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23057133

Martin, J. (1999). Mentoring semeogenesis: “Genre-based” literacy pedagogy. In F. Christie (Ed.), Pedagogy and the shaping of consciousness (pp. 123 – 155). London: Cassell.

Olson, C. B., & Land, R. (2007). A cognitive strategies approach to reading and writing instruction for English language learners in secondary school. Research in the Teaching of English, 41(3), 269–303. Retrieved from <Go to ISI>://WOS:000244438000003

Palinesar, A. S. (1987). Reciprocal Teaching. Instructor, 96(2), 5 – 60.

Raphael, T. E., & Au, K. H. (2005). QAR: Enhancing Comprehension and Test Taking Across Grades and Content Areas. The Reading Teacher, 59(3), 206–221. doi:10.1598/RT.59.3.1

Rose, D., & Martin, J. R. (2012). Reading to Learn. In Learning to Write/Read to Learn: Genre, Knowledge and Pedagogy in the Sydney School (pp. 133–234). Sheffield: Equinox Publishing.

Rueda, R., MacGillivray, L., Monzo, L., and Arzubiaga, A. (2001). “Engaged Reading: A multilevel approach to considering sociocultural factors with diverse learners”, CIERA Report #1-012, University of Michigan: Centre for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA).

Wittgenstein, L. (1969). On Certainty. (G. E. M. Anscombe & G. H. von Wright, Eds.). New York: Harper Torchbooks.

Zucker, T. A. & Landry, S. H. (2010). Improving the quality of preschool read-alouds: professional development and coaching that targets book-reading practices. In McKenna, M., Walpole, S. & Conradi, K. (Eds), Promoting early reading: research, resources and best practices. New York: The Guilford Press.

Factors Contributing to Comprehensive Literacy Development

Previously, we have alluded to the changing direction of this website; it will focus more space on the many dimension of literacy and less space on the philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein. In an effort to outline the dimensions of factors contributing to comprehensive literacy development, we would include:

1. Robust development of oral language in language-rich and literacy-rich environments;
2. Clear, systematic and intensive development of phonemic awareness (when suitable);
3. Further systematic and progressive development of alphabetic skills, including phonics, spelling and morphology;
4. Wide ranging support of vocabulary development from a very young age;
5. Expert utilisation of read-alouds;
6. Skilled orchestration of language experiences;
7. Substantial time set aside for fluency practice (include time for independent reading);
8. Attention to ultimate goal of reading instruction: comprehension; and
9. Apprenticeship into the craft of composition; and
10. Ongoing and deepening construction of knowledge (the real goal of learning).

The above areas are not mutually exclusive. Ultimately, they should also be unified by thematic investigation(s).

In this pursuit, we want learners to develop:

1. Cognitive skills (e.g. pattern recognition, memory retrieval) and meta-cognitive awareness;
2. Motivation, attitudes, interests and expertise;
3. Non-verbal skills and talents; and
4. Careers and identities.

Therefore, the developing website will come to include specific advice in such areas as:

• Fostering Oral Language;
• Developing Phonemic Awareness;
• Solidifying Alphabetic Knowledge;
• Extending Vocabulary;
• Utilising Read-Alouds;
• Orchestrating Language Experiences;
• Shaping Fluency;
• Ensuring Comprehension;
• Facilitating Composition;
• Integrating Content Learning;
• Building and Representing Knowledge;
• Scaffolding Action;
• Fostering Interests and Expertise;
• Pulling All of This Together Into Integrated Teaching and Learning.

Getting to the Rough Ground of Language and Literacy Learning Through the Language Experience Approach

Early language learners benefit from rich tasks that provide learners with ample opportunities to hear, see, use and manipulate language in contextualised, purposeful ways. The videos to the lower right provide compelling examples of the multiple learnings achieved through a humble kitchen garden project for newly arrived refugee children at a primary school in an urban Australian community. The project illustrates the potential for deep learning when the learning develops from authentic, engaging experiences.

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I'd like readers/viewers to notice how the kitchen garden becomes a central device to develop language, literacy, culture and knowledge. You should notice how language is reinforced through practical activity, how language is assisted visually in the classroom, and how it is transformed into knowledge through writing.

This is an example of a teaching method known as the Language Experience Approach (LEA), which is a catch-all term for teaching that anchors literacy and language learning in shared experiences. In most cases, the “experience” is a physically, shared experience, but there is a more and more avenues to share experience virtually through video, interactive tools and online content (such as web quests). 

The Language Experience Approach emphasises language learning through carefully scaffolded and reinforced language in context and through activity. Teachers and learners diligently document the experience, so the experience can be revisited and developed through further reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing and representing in the classroom.

The following are a number of questions to consider when building language and literacy through authentic, mutual practices. Even though we will elaborated on the teaching method in the future, these initial questions illustrate the significance of a number of essential practices in the LEA, such as scaffolded talk, documenting the experience, revisiting the experience in the classroom, pulling out rich vocabulary, expanding the experience through writing, and using the experience for further comprehension and [content] learning. In this system, the teacher must be adept at orchestrating, sequencing and extending a variety practices (often within a tight timetable).

Before and During the Experience

1. What is the experience? Is this an actual or virtual experience?
2. How is joint attention achieved and how is language being scaffolded?
3. How is vocabulary emphasised/reinforced/introduced/recorded during the experience
4. How is the experience being documented (digital cameras, information scaffolds, graphic organisers, scaffolded questions, etc)?
5. How do the instructional conversations that take place throughout the experience build a common discourse and assist learning?

After the Experience

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Students benefit from a variety of activities that reinforce language and literacy in the classroom: word walls, flow charts, exemplary texts and further hands-on learning.

1. Are word walls / glossaries / semantic maps / flow charts / storyboards developed from the experience? Are they prominent, accessible and rigorous?
2. How is the documentation used to help the class jointly and/or individually re-construct the experience? Is the sentence cycle used to generate rich, juicy sentences?
3. How is the joint construction phase used to refresh people’s memory and knowledge of events?
4. Can the newly constructed text(s) be used as “familiar text(s)” that can be re-read as fluency practice?
5. Has the teacher selected a portion of words to use for further word study?

Extending the Experience

1. Can you link new readings to the shared experience? For instance, now that we have explored the world of the garden, can we explore:
   • poetry about gardens or which use gardens as a motif;
   • procedural/information texts about gardening;
   • stories and/or picture books which takes place in a garden; and 
   • news articles about community gardens?
2. Can the writing be extended to the inclusion of the writing of recognised genres related to the experience? (procedural texts, brochures, etc)
3. How have non-verbal knowledge, expertise and attitudes been fostered through the activity?

Final Note

The Language Experience Approach (LEA) does not replace systematic, intensive instruction in word study, nor does the LEA replace the importance of regular shared and guided reading of age- and skill-appropriate texts. That said, shared and guided can be incorporated into the LEA. The LEA provides an important avenue for the exploration of guided and extended writing and language learning. Within the LEA, there are many micro-teaching moments which should take advantage of best practice language and literacy methods.

Further Reading

Au, K. H. (1979). Using the Experience-Text Relationship Method with Minority Children. The Reading Teacher, (March), 677–679.

Labbo, L. D., Eakle, A. J., & Montero, M. K. (2002). Digital Language Experience Approach: Using Digital Photographs and Software as a Language Experience Approach Innovation. Reading Online, 5(8), 1–19. Retrieved from http://www.readingonline.org/electronic/labbo2/

Landis, D., Umolo, J., & Mancha, S. (2010). The power of language experience for cross-cultural reading and writing. The Reading Teacher, 63(7), 580–589.

Moustafa, M. (2008). Exceeding the standards: a strategic approach to linking state standards to best practices in reading and writing instruction. New York: Scholastic.

Nessel, D. D., & Dixon, C. N. (2008). Using the language experience approach with English language learners: Strategies for engaging students and developing literacy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Wurr, A. J. (2002). Language Experience Approach Revisited: The Use of Personal Narratives in Adult L2 Literacy Instruction. The Reading Matrix, 2(1), 1–8. Retrieved from http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/wurr/?collection=col10460/1.

An Ode to the Sentence: A Vehicle to Express Thought

It might sound a bit pompous, but we do like the elegance of the Commanding Sentences quotes/notes on this site. Also, we’d like to say that the notes section is a part of the site that probably does not get as much attention as it deserves. In fact, the collected quotes/notes is where everything started in the first place.  

In relation to Commanding Sentences, Wittgenstein exudes a respect for the sentence (or proposition), particularly in his early work. There is a respect for the ability of a sentence to capture, express and shape meaning. In fact, there is also a respect for the time and care that one takes to reconstruct experiences and ideas for re-examination. 

“PI 280: Someone paints a picture in order to show how he imagines a theatre scene. And now I say: “This picture has a double function: it informs others, as pictures or words inform — but for one who gives the information it is a representation (or piece of information?) of another kind: for him it is the picture of his image.”

However, the time necessary to attend to our words can be lacking in the stream of language and living. Even though we speak regularly and often, it is important to draw a distinction between sentences and proposition. We speak lots of sentences, but not every sentence proposes a state of affairs worthy of reflection.

“TLP 3.141: A proposition is not a blend of words. — (Just as a theme of music is not a blend of notes.) A proposition is articulate.”

There is something admirable about the time one takes to arrange  sentences in such a way that they represent the inter-relationships amongst ideas, events, actors, and more. 

If you have the chance, please visit the Commanding Sentences notes/quote section. To help guide you, the following represents the logical sequence of the categorised quotes:

• Introduction: We start with the recognition that a sentence has the capacity to “communicates a situation to us”;
• Picture Theory: That in a proposition “a situation is, as it were, constructed by way of experiment”;
• Decoding/Projecting/Processing: However, a proposition stands in need of decoding and processing, since “a sentence is given [to] me in code together with the key”;
• Reasoning: Every sensical sentence expresses a sense but it is up to us to determine “its truth or falsity” and to decipher its purpose/intention;
• Making Meaning: It is up to use to determine the meaning of a sentence, and “some sentences have to be read several times to be understood”;
• Discussing & Discourse: To understand a sentence, we must also appeal to the conversation it is part of, because if you are to “understand anything in language, you must understand what the dialogue is, and you must see how understanding grows as the dialogue grow.”
• Linguistic & Intellectual Turns: We come to develop a rich set of grammatical forms that allow us to make intellectual moves, since a “discipline in form is a discipline in thought” (also see Building knowledge through discussion); and
• Action: We apply these sentences to get things done, since “*speaking* of language is part of an activity, or of a life-form”. Therefore, “reading and writing in any domain … are not just ways of decoding print, they are also caught up with and in social practices.”

I welcome you to explore and enjoy!

Major Updates Made to the Literacy Glossary and Reading Lists

Some may downplay this announcement as merely routine site maintenance. In actual fact, an update to the site's glossaries and reading lists is news that significant progress has been made to the very foundations of the online resource. 

Firstly, progress is finally being made to the Literacy Glossary. This resource is a work-in-progress. A core list of 70 terms/concepts will be part of the initial list. These terms/concepts will be added over the coming weeks. A further announcement will be made once the Literacy Glossary is fully drafted.

Secondly, there is a range of additions that have been made to the Literacy-Related Reading Lists. In the Contexts of Literacy Instruction section, I have added readings related to the Language Experience Approach (LEA). LEA is an pedagogy whereby shared experiences (e.g. gardening, going out bush, cooking, etc) become the basis for interactive writing exercises which - in turn - produce texts that serve as sources of further reading practice. Teachers and students can use digital photography and information scaffolds to document experiences, and this documentation can be used to recreate, recount and extend upon the shared experiences. Teachers are also encourage to focus on particular words for word study and vocabulary exercises. LEA is an effective teaching technique for younger students and beginning English language learners. More about the Language Experience Approach will be written in the near future. In the meantime, please explore the readings. 

Two reading lists have also been added to the Elements of Instruction section of the readings: Supporting Fluency and Assessment Tools. This rounds out the Elements section. The lists mirror the five pillars of effective reading instruction (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000), whilst also including an emphasis on writing and oral language development. Effective instruction must foster the development of phonemic awareness, letter-sound correspondence (including spelling), vocabulary, oral language, reading fluency, reading comprehension and writing/composing. The Supporting Fluency reading list provides a brief yet comprehensive list of references, whilst the Assessment Tools reading list will grow over time.

Last but not least, word clouds have been added to each of the reading lists in the Elements of Instruction section. The logic of the word clouds will be revealed in a future resource. In the meantime, the following is a gallery of the collected clouds. Please enjoy and explore!

Reference

• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Coming Soon ... The Literacy Bug

In a recent Journal Entry, I mentioned that Changes Were Afoot. The change mentioned at the time was quite minor. It involved the mere change of one word. Wittgenstein on Learning became Wittgenstein on Literacy. That was all in preparation for another change, which is being announced today and which will take effect over the coming weeks. 

Today, I can announce that the site will have a new name, but not necessarily a new direction. Please welcome The Literacy Bug (http://theliteracybug.com). The change acknowledges that the site has been moving toward a particular focus on literacy. The new name allows us to simultaneously break from an explicit link to the philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, whilst also celebrating this link. 

For the general visitor, the new name has a certain attraction. We want people to Catch the Literacy Bug. We want learners to be infected with the desire to gain meaning from print and to codify ideas in the written word. In the interests of free-flowing information, we want to celebrate the proliferation of oral, print and visual literacies. 

For the nuanced visitor, the name alludes to Wittgenstein’s famous Beetle in the Box thought experiment. If you permit us to recap the experiment, it goes as follows … There are a certain number of people - perhaps around a table. Each one has a box before him or her. They are told that each one has a beetle in his/her box. The group is - then - asked, “do you know what is in each other’s box?” The group’s response is obvious, “of course, you just told us. We each have a beetle.” What is the point here? Well … because the group share a common language and certain common experiences, then they can understand what has been said without looking inside the “box”, which can metaphorically be taken as either “the mind” or “empirical verification”. Isn’t this the magic of language and - thereby - literacy? We can share ideas, mental pictures, concepts, etc. through the common language that we share. 

Sure … we may need to interpret others’ minds to get the point.  We may even need to share certain values, concepts and practices. And there will be certain texts that will elude the most literate person if the content lies too far outside one’s experience. And there will be cases where a text will richly provide its reader with new experiences and new ways of perceiving events that will leave an indelible impact on their world picture. Isn’t that magical?

Please welcome to The Literacy Bug. You can visit http://theliteracybug.com and you will be swept back to this site. The site's previous addresses will continue to work (wittgenstein-on-literacy.com and wittgenstein-on-learning.com), and the final version of the new logo is still under development. Enjoy and explore!

Structuring the rhythms of practice: the foundations for learning

Photo by Allison Joyce/Getty Images News / Getty Images

We are pleased to announce that a new page has been added to the Teaching Folder. The Establishing Meaningful Practices page seeks to "get to the rough ground" and emphasise the importance of establishing effective practices in home, school and community environments, which are based on quality teaching principles. We are interested in contrasting what may appear as sporadic, isolated activities with those activities that are carefully arranged and which contribute to the development of meaningful literacy skills.

A practice “is something people do, not just once, but on a regular basis. But it is more than just a disposition to behave in a certain way; the identity of a practice depends on not only on what people do, but also on the significance of those actions and the surroundings in which they occur.” (Stern, 2004, pg 166). For some reason, people pray, brush their teeth, complete their tax, hike in National Parks, long for the next dance, etc. Each “activity” is part of - let’s says - religious practices, hygienic practices, economic practices, artistic practices, social practices and more. Each practice is much more than the sum of its parts. For instance, the combination of prayer, worship, scripture, and stewardship amounts to more than a collection of disparate activities. They amount to a form of life, and they rely upon resources, other participants, a sense of attachment, cultural artefacts, instruction (or initiation) and more. Likewise, literacy involves the orchestrations of many experiences which culminate in the fostering of the literate practitioner. Time and space must be carved out in the great hurly burly of life so that the practice can grow, flourish and evolve.

So ... how do we make certain activities part and parcel of the practices of home, school, the community, etc? What are the material and social conditions that make this happen? What role do adults and peers play in establishing the conditions of a practice? Is it realistic that all budding "apprentices" will have access to "teachers" (including parents) with sufficient expertise and wherewithal? Overall, how does something become a practice and, through practice, how does the learner's engagement with the world change?

Please click here to explore the Establishing (Literacy) Practices page in the Teaching Folder.

What Are Some Key Questions to Ask When Choosing Teaching Methods and Materials for Literacy Instruction?

The following is a quite rough attempt to draft some questions that teachers can consider when selecting teaching methods and materials in a literacy program. The questions ask teacher to reflect upon such items as the developmental stage(s) of learners, the degree of balance in instruction, whether content is suitable, and the adequacy of planing/assessment practices. It is hoped that these questions will be refined and explained in the future. Please explore and enjoy!!

Stages of Literacy Development

1. What stage of literacy development would I consider this individual to be at?
2. Upon what evidence am I making this assessment?
3. Is the learner at the age-appropriate level?
4. What factors would account for the learner being at this particular stage? (refer to the component model of reading achievement - cognitive, psychological and ecological factors)
5. What instruction/practices has the individual had previously?
6. What instruction would I recommend for this learner and why?
7. What resources and practice would this include? Are such resources and practice accessible and appropriate?
8. Does the learner have access to safe, supportive spaces with a coalition of supporters and access to quality materials?
9. Am I selecting the most appropriate reading material in relation to content, vocabulary, syntax, motivation and engagement?
10. What other developmental factors must I consider in my assessment? Language skills? Non-verbal cognitive skills? Background knowledge and interests? Maturation? Interests? Relationships?
11. What are my hopes and aspirations for the learner? What are opportunities that lie ahead? What are some obstacles? What are some of the choices that will need to be made along the way?

Balanced Instruction

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What are the Focus Areas of Instruction?

1. How is my instruction balancing core aspects of literacy teaching: phonemic awareness, word recognition, orthography, fluency, composition, comprehension, robust vocabulary development, critical thinking, applied practice, content learning, and independent exploration?
2. How are learners developing declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge?
3. How am I focusing on mastery whilst at the same time allowing time for content-based inquiry and exploration?
4. Are my lessons/units based around thematic investigations?
5. Are my lessons/units anchored in real-world interaction and problem solving?
6. Am I able to employ the Language Experience Approach (LEA) to develop language skills, purposeful reading, and non-verbal skills and knowledge?
7. Is my focus on mastery systemic, intensive, linear though the use of spelling dictionaries, phoneme walls and progress practice with suitable texts?
8. Is there ample guided and shared reading practice in order to assist with fluency and accuracy?
9. Is there ample guided and shared reading practice in order to assist with comprehension?
10. Am I regularly investing in vocabulary development through thematic investigations, word walls, word maps and related vocabulary/conceptual development?
11. Is time set aside for reading practice and application of the readers’ cognitive toolkit?
12. Is time set aside for composition with an emphasis on field building, deconstruction, joint construction, guided construction, and independent practice?
13. In the earlier and later years is there suitable time set aside aside for oral language development (which is known to impact comprehension, vocabulary and grammatical knowledge) and print-based skills (which is known to impact fluency and accuracy)?
14. Does my allocation of instructional time reflect a balanced approach?

Content & Contexts

1. Is all learning based on knowledge exploration? Through LEAs? Thematic investigations? Close readings? Etc?
2. Am I taking into account learners’ prior knowledge and present explorations when preparing LEAs and thematic investigations?
3. Is the scaffolding provided for content-based learning adequate to enhance deep learning and discovery?
4. Is the learning taking into consideration the context in which the learning will be applied?

In Relationship to Specific Ages and/or Groups

1. Must I consider the unique experiences of particular ages or groups, such as pre-school learners, English language learners, those with learning difficulties, or adult learnings with limited literacy and/or English?
2. If so, how does this affect my teaching?
3. How do I take these factors into consideration?
4. What are the literacy needs? language needs? learning needs? non-verbal needs? etc?
5. Why must I continue to ensure that the teaching is developmentally appropriate with high expectations and quality support?

Planning & Assessment

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Have I taken into account each level of literacy engagement?

1. Have I taken all the factors above in my planning?
2. Is my instruction evolving as the learners develop?
3. Does my weekly timetable make best use of instructional time?
4. Am I effective in my use of literacy rotations?
5. What evidence am I collecting to make formative assessments on learners’ progress?
6. Am I supported in the decisions that I make? Am I able to collaborate with others?
7. Are my planning & assessment activities fair and adequate?
8. Have I achieved balance in my instruction?
9. Is my teaching structured, challenging and creative?
10. Do I have a clear vision of the pathways for learners?
11. Do I take into consideration individual differences and differentiate instruction accordingly?
12. Does my teaching respond to the cultural and contextual diversity of my learners and the community?
13. Do I consult with a wide range of stakeholders during my planning, preparation, delivery and evaluation?

Teaching Practice Must Progress in Keeping with the Stages of Reading Development

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Chall, J. S. (1996). Stages of reading development (2nd ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovic College Publishers.

Over the past couple months, we have made regular reference to Chall's six stages of reading development, which accounts for reading development from birth to adulthood. For that reason, we have added a specific section on the stages of literacy development to the Teaching Folder of the site. Therefore, it provides us with a platform to explore the way in which pedagogy changes as learners develop throughout the developmental sequence. 

If we borrow Wittgenstein’s concepts here, a developmental account of a language/literacy learning progression is sensitive to the way perception (aspect seeing) changes, practices form, attitudes develop, knowledge takes shape and (literate) forms of life take root (or fail to do so). We need to marvel at how learning transpires and how each new act of learning builds from that which came before. We need to be amazed at the small steps and giant leaps that occur. We need to be cautious of stagnation and entropy.

In time, we will address the following sequence of questions for each of the six levels.

1. What does instruction look like at this stage?

• activities, routines, etc;
• books and other texts;
• writing tasks;
• formal and informal activities; 
• independent activity.

2. What should learners be able to accomplish/engage in?

• independently;
• with guidance;
• jointly;
• if/when modelled.

3. What would gradual release of control (or apprenticeship) look like at this stage?

4. At the end of the stage,  how is the learner prepared for the subsequent stage?

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Chiu, M. M., McBride-Chang, C., & Lin, D. (2012). Ecological, psychological, and cognitive components of reading difficulties: Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(5), 391–405.

5. What would be characteristic age range be for this stage? What support/intervention should be provided if a learner is failing behind? 

6. How does one coordinate learning/support if there is a substantial difference between the learner's age and developmental stage? How does one choose content that is both linguistically and age appropriate?

7 How can we use the component model of reading development (depicted to the right)  to (a) identify potential assets/deficits exhibited by the learners and (b) to strategise with a multi-dimensional approach to building capacity in each area?

The sequence of images below demonstrates how the balance of instruction and approach alters across a learner’s lifespan. I invite you to explore the Stages of Literacy page. Explore and enjoy!

Stage 0 (6 months - 6 years)

Stage 1 (6 to 7 years old)

p.s. Even though one may be tempted to see skills progressing in a purely sequential manner, I would like to emphasise that each skill domain should be practiced/experienced to some extent at each stage of a reader/writer's development. The following table illustrates a significant point: at any given stage there should be literacy elements that we expect the individual to be able to practice explicitly (e.g. spelling) as well as other elements that individual can participate in with guidance (e.g. prompting or scaffolding a story) or jointly with a peer or adult.

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References

Chall, J. S. (1996). Stages of reading development (2nd ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovic College Publishers.

Chiu, M. M., McBride-Chang, C., & Lin, D. (2012). Ecological, psychological, and cognitive components of reading difficulties: testing the component model of reading in fourth graders across 38 countries. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(5), 391–405. doi:10.1177/0022219411431241