Developing Constrained Skills

 
“Teaching constrained skills explicitly and systematically and matching instruction to students’ developmental needs should ensure that the largest portion of the literacy block can be allocated to the more complex unconstrained abilities throughout the elementary years.”
— Stahl, 2011, p. 56
 

"The Reading Wars are over" is something we would like to proclaim loudly and strongly. It is relief to know that there is a contemporary consensus that amounts to something like this: reading is a multifaceted skills that requires both technical skills as well as meaningful, diverse usage. We no longer need to engage in a battle of phonics vs whole language. In fact, we need to focus on a balance of teaching practices. This balance is captured in something known as constrained skill theory.

Constrained skill theory (Paris, 2005) states that literacy development involves the development of two types of skills: constrained skills and unconstrained skills. The present page pertain to the development of constrained skills, which includes print awareness, phonemic awareness, alphabetic knowledge, spelling, and fluency. These skills are also referred to as print-based or decoding skills, even though phonemic awareness is a pre-print or, rather, language processing skill. The aim of instruction is to achieve ‘mastery’ of these skills (in a relatively short time frame), so that learners can engage deeply and fluidly in intentional, imaginative reading and writing practices. Constrained skills are necessary, though not sufficient, for full literacy. They are best taught and assessed systematically as part of comprehensive language and literacy program.

For your reference, unconstrained skills refer to growth in meaning-based skills such as oral language, vocabulary, comprehension, composition and critical thinking skills. These skills are developed across one’s lifetime and become more complex in adolescence and into (young) adulthood. They require  meaningful routines and opportunities to practice in authentic circumstances across all years of schooling. 

As a result, instruction in the early years must balance the development of the dual skills. The diagram to the right seeks to represent this relationship schematically (select the image to expand). The left side of the “A” includes the elements contributing to oral language comprehension (unconstrained skills); whereas the right side the of the “A” includes the components that lead to robust decoding skills (constrained skills). The second diagram (below) provides constrained and unconstrained skills along a spectrum. The final diagram (also below) provides a visual timeline of the development of literacy-related areas. In this final diagram, one should notice that constrained skills must optimally be mastered in the earlier years of education (e.g. by 9 - 10 years old) to make way for more demanding reading and writing activities from late primary school and into high school and beyond. 

Please explore the following notes, which provide key milestones in each of the key constrained skill areas. Recommended assessment tools, sample programs and activities are also listed. Please enjoy! This page will be developed over time.

Paris, S. G. (2005). Reinterpreting the development of reading skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 40(2), 184–202. doi:10.1598/RRQ.40.2.3

Stahl, K. A. D. (2011). Applying new visions of reading development in today’s classroom. The Reading Teacher, 65(1), 52–56. Retrieved from http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/scmsAdmin/uploads/006/717/new visions.pdf

FIGURE 2: Spectrum of Constrained and Unconstrained Literacy Skills

FIGURE 3: Visual Map of Literacy-Related Developmental Milestones

Concept of Print (Print Awareness)

Print awareness is achieved when children understanding that words on a page have meaning and that they are related to spoken language. Young children do not initially understand that older children and adults are deriving language and stories from "squiggles" on the page.

Milestones

  • Follows with pictures in shared reading = 18 mths to 6 yrs old
  • Engages in pseudo-reading (e.g. page turning) = 2 - 5 yrs old
  • Print Awareness: attends to print features = 3 - 5 yrs old
  • Knowledge of letter names and sounds emerges = 4 - 5 yrs old
  • Knows less than half the alphabet = 4 - 5 yrs old
  • Knows you read from left to right (directionality) = 4 - 6 yrs old
  • Concept of a Word in Print/Text (watershed moment) = 5 yrs old
  • Accurately tracks print = 5 - 6 yrs old
  • Knows half or more of the alphabet = 5 - 6 yrs old
  • Knows all the alphabet = 6 yrs old
  • Identifies beginning & end consonant sounds = 6 - 7 yrs old
  • Locates print convention (punctuation, capitals) = 6 - 7 yrs old

Recommended Assessment

  • Clay, M. M. (2013). An observation survey of early literacy achievement (3rd edition). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Activities

  • Securing concept of word with plenty of reading in predictable books, dictations, and simple rhymes.
  • Environmental print, such as signs related to themes studied, directions, rules, functional messages
  • Write messages for and with your child
  • Involve your child with grocery lists & shopping
  • Magnetic/Wooden/Cards with letters and phonograms
  • Letter stamps
  • Letter shaping exercises
  • Encourages attempts at writing, drawing and sending messages
  • Joint/interactive writing on functional tasks, like creating a party invitation, writing a shopping list, sending a card to grandma
  • Encouraging invented spelling and name writing
  • Modelling directional writing, and helping child copy.

Sample Programs

Recommended Readings

Phonics, Decoding, Spelling and Morphology

Phonics is simply the system of relationships between letters and sounds in a language. When your kindergartener learns that the letter B has the sound of /b/ and your second-grader learns that “tion” sounds like /shun/, they are learning phonics. Orthography refers specifically to the sophisticated rules of spelling. Morphology refers to meaningful units in words, such as prefixes, suffixes and base units.

Milestones

  • Pre-alphabet phase (by visual/contextual cues) = 3 - 5 yrs old
  • Emergent (Print Concept) Spellers = 3 - 5 yrs old
  • Knowledge of letter names and sounds emerges = 4 - 5 yrs old
  • Partial alphabetic phase ( by visual & salient parts) = 4 - 6 yrs old
  • Spell it like it sounds = 4 - 7 yrs old
  • Letter Name-Alphabetic (Semi-Phonetic) Spelling = 4 - 7 yrs old
  • Decoding (alphabet) phase (by grapheme & phoneme) = 6 - 7 yrs old
  • Consolidated (orthographic) phase = 7 - 9 yrs old
  • Within-Word Pattern (Transitional) Spelling = 7 - 9 yrs old
  • Spell it by pattern = 7 - 9 yrs old
  • Syllables and Affixes (Independent) Spelling = 9 - 11 yrs old
  • Spell it by rule = 9 - 11 yrs old
  • Morphological (by meaningful units) = 9 yrs old+
  • Coordinate several strategies = 10 - 13 yrs old
  • Spell it from knowledge = 13 yrs+ (See Bear et al. 2012 for further details)

Recommended Assessment

  • Qualitative Spelling Inventory from Bear, S., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F. (2014). Words their way: word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction (5th edition). Essex: Pearson.

Other Relevant, Easy-to-Use Assessments

  • Z-test
  • Informal Phonics Inventory
  • Informal Decoding Inventory
  • South Australian Spelling Test
  • Test of Word Reading Efficiency
  • Qualitative Reading Inventory (5th Ed)
  • Informal Reading Inventories (various editions)
  • Qualitative assessment through written samples

Activities

  • Word/Sound/Pattern Sorts
  • Concept Sorts
  • Use the Words You Know
  • Word Hunts
  • Phoneme Wall/Journals
  • Invented Spelling
  • Spelling Journal
  • Word Scramble / Making Words
  • Word Ladders
  • Games (matching, memory, bingo, snap, board games)

Sample Program

  • Bear, S., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F. (2014). Words their way: word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction (5th edition). Essex: Pearson.

Recommended Readings

FIGURE 4: The balance of instruction must change as learners move through stages of literacy development.

Phonological & Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness refers to the specific ability to focus on and manipulate individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. Phonological awareness is a broad skill that includes identifying and manipulating units of oral language, such as words, syllables, onsets and rimes. 

Milestones

  • Awareness of rhyme emerges = 24 - 30 mths
  • Ability to produce rhyme emerges = 30 - 36 mths
  • Rote imitation and enjoyment of rhyme and alliteration = 4 yrs old
  • Rhyme recognition, odd word out = 5 yrs old
  • Recognition of phonemic changes in words = 5 yrs old
  • Clapping, counting syllables = 5 yrs old
  • Ability to segment words into phonemes begins = 5 - 7 yrs old
  • Noticing & remembering separate phonemes in a series = 5.5 yrs old
  • Blending onset and rime = 5.5 yrs old
  • Producing a rhyme = 5.5 yrs old
  • Matching initial sounds; isolating an initial sound = 5.5 yrs old
  • Compound word deletion = 6 yrs old
  • Syllable deletion = 6 yrs old
  • Blending of two and three phonemes = 6 yrs old
  • Segment phonemes in words with simple syllables with 2 –3 phonemes (no blends) = 6 yrs old
  • Segment phonemes in words that have up to 3–4 phonemes (include blends) = 6.5 yrs old
  • Substitute phoneme to build words with simple syllables (no blends) = 6.5 yrs old
  • Sound deletion (initial and final positions) = 7 yrs old
  • Sound deletion (initial position, include blends) = 8 yrs old
  • Sound deletion (medial and final blend positions) = 9 yrs old(Ages when 80–90 % of typical students achieved a phonological skill.) Source: Moats, L, & Tolman, C (2009). Excerpted from Language Essentials for Teachers of Reading and Spelling (LETRS): The Speech Sounds of English: Phonetics, Phonology, and Phoneme Awareness (Module 2). Boston: Sopris West.

Recommended Assessment

  • Neilson, R. (2014). School Entry Alphabetic and Phonological Awareness Readiness Test (SEAPART). Sydney: Language, Speech & Literacy Services.

Activities

  • Rhyming, Songs, Chants and Poetry
  • Clapping syllables
  • Elkonin (Sound) Boxes
  • Say-It-And-Move-It
  • Sound/Spelling Stick
  • Puppet Play
  • Multi-sensory awareness
  • Picture Segmenting/Blending
  • Picture Card Sorting
  • Picture-Letter Match
  • Shaping Letters / Shaping Words

Sample Program

  • Adams, M. J., Foorman, B. R., Lunberg, I., & Beeler, T. (1988). Phonemic awareness in young children: a classroom curriculum. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company.

Recommended Readings

Fluency

Fluency is defined as the ability to read with speed, accuracy, and proper expression. In order to understand what they read, children must be able to read fluently whether they are reading aloud or silently. When reading aloud, fluent readers read in phrases and add intonation appropriately. Their reading is smooth and has expression.

Milestones

  • 60 words correct per minutes (WCPM) at the end or Grade 1
  • 90 words correct per minutes (WCPM) at the end or Grade 2
  • 110 words correct per minutes (WCPM) at the end or Grade 3
  • 120 words correct per minutes (WCPM) at the end or Grade 4
  • 140 words correct per minutes (WCPM) at the end or Grade 5
  • 150 words correct per minutes (WCPM) at the end or Grade 6
  • 150 words correct per minutes (WCPM) at the end or Grade 7
  • 150 words correct per minutes (WCPM) at the end or Grade 8

The above figures represent the average (50th percentile) expected at given stages. As indicated above, oral reading rates plateau round Grade 6, whereas silent reading rates are found to continue increases through secondary school.

Rate and accuracy, however, are not the most significant factors to look for in fluency. One must also attend to prosody and stamina as well as reading comprehension.

Recommended Assessments

  • Leslie, L. & Caldwell, J. S. (2010). Qualitative Reading Inventory (5th edition). Boston: Pearson.
  • Running Records from Clay, M. M. (2013). An observation survey of early literacy achievement (3rd edition). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
  • 4 x 4 Oral Reading Fluency Rating Scale

Activities

  • Tracking Print
  • Modelling Fluent Reading
  • Repeated Rereading
  • Whisper Read
  • Lead Read
  • Echo Read
  • Choral Read
  • Neurological Impress Method
  • Buddy Reading
  • Readers’ Theatre
  • Sustained Silent Reading
  • Radio Reading
  • Audio/Tape Recording (Listening & Producing)
  • Read Naturally (computer software)

Sample Programs

  • Kuhn, M. R. & Rasinki, T. R. (2011). Best practices in fluency instruction. In L. M. Morrow & L. B. Gambrell, Best practices in literacy instruction (4th ed., pp. 276 - 294). New York: Guilford Press.

  • Kuhn, M. R., & Stahl, S. A. (2003). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 3–21. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.1.3

  • Marcell, B. (2011). Putting Fluency on a Fitness Plan : Building Fluency’s Meaning-Making Muscles. The Reading Teacher, 65(4), 242–249. doi:10.1002/TRTR.01034

Recommended Readings

FIGURE 5: Source: My Little Bookshelf

As mentioned at the outset, constrained skills are necessary but not sufficient for literacy development. They are best learned in the context of a robust language, literacy and knowledge program. Let us consider how this might function in a classroom or home environment. For example, an engaging shared reading activity would enthral learners in the events of the story and through rich, scaffolded talk about the story. This may lead into the creation of a dynamic visual collage of imagery reminiscent of the story, which is eventually hung on the wall of the classroom (to be revisited and added to later). Perhaps, this picture book takes place in a garden, and the teacher links the events to a real-life garden, either a full, on-campus garden or a mini-garden on the window sill of the pre-school. All these activities would be developing unconstrained skills, such as oral language, vocabulary, comprehension, composition, motivation and knowledge. 

In and amongst these activities, the teacher must allocate time to “turn the lens” - so to speak - and explicitly attend to the development of constrained skills in a systematic and monitored way. These activities may occur as games with manipulatives or as partner reading (in the case of fluency practice). These activities are an essential part of the literacy learning schedule. We make this point elsewhere, particular in the essay - A Teacher for All Season - because the best teachers are those who organise the sequential instruction of key skills whilst allowing for authentic, creative application of literacy in practice. The challenge lies in how we balance and monitor all instructional elements across the stages of literacy development in an age-appropriate manner (as represented in the Figure 4).

Paris, S. G. (2005). Reinterpreting the development of reading skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 40(2), 184–202. doi:10.1598/RRQ.40.2.3

Stahl, K. A. D. (2011). Applying new visions of reading development in today’s classroom. The Reading Teacher, 65(1), 52–56. Retrieved from http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/scmsAdmin/uploads/006/717/new visions.pdf